From: "Randy Nichols, ACA Pres." <75542.1003@compuserve.com>

I received an interesting post from a friend of mine in
SWEDEN regarding the historical foundations of cryptology.
After reading my "bare thread/course outline" posted to the
NCSA Forum 21 June 1995 (copy attached), he suggested that I
may have forgotten to include Dr.  Ibrahim A.  Al-Kadi's
outstanding 1990 paper to the Swedish Royal Institute of
Technology in Stockholm regarding the Arabic contributions to
cryptology.

Dr. Al-Kadi reported on the Arabic scientist by the name of
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Is-haq ibn as Sabbah ibn 'omran ibn
Ismail Al-Kindi, who authored a book on cryptology the
"Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma"  (Manuscript for the
Deciphering Cryptographic Messages) circa 750 AD.  Al-Kindi
introduced crytanalysis techniques, classification of
ciphers, Arabic Phonetics and Syntax and most importantly
described the use of several statistical techniques for
cryptanalysis. [This book apparently antedates other
cryptology references by 300 years.] [It also predates
writings on probability and statistics by Pascal and Fermat
by nearly 800 years.]

Dr. Al-Kadi also reported on the mathematical writings of Al-
Khwarizmi (780-847) who introduced common technical terms
such as 'zero', 'cipher', 'algorithm', 'algebra' and 'Arabic
numerals.'  The decimal number system and the concept of zero
were originally developed in India.  The Arabs translated in
the early ninth century, Brahmagupta's "Siddhanta" from
Sanscrit into Arabic.  The new numerals were quickly adopted
through-out the Islamic empire from China to Spain.
Translations of Al-Khwarizmi's book on arithmetic by Robert
of Chester, John of Halifax and the Italian Leonardo of Pisa,
aka Fibonacci strongly advocated the use of Arabic numerals
over the previous Roman Standard Numerals (I,V,X,C,D,M).

The Roman system was very cumbersome because there was no
concept of zero or (empty space).  The concept of zero
which we all think of as natural was just the opposite
in medieval Europe.  In Sanscrit, the zero was called "sunya"
or "empty". The Arabs translated the Indian into the Arabic
equivalent "sifr".  Europeans adopted the concept and symbol
but not name, but transformed it into Latin equivalent
"cifra" and "cephirium" {Fibonnaci did this}.  The Italian
equivalent of these words "zefiro", "zefro" and "zevero".
The latter was shortened to "Zero".

The French formed the word "chiffre" and conceded the Italian
word "zero".  The English used "zero" and "Cipher" from the
word ciphering as a means of computing.  The Germans used the
words "ziffer" and "chiffer".

The concept of zero or sifr or cipher was so confusing and
ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would
say "talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher".
Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or simply
encryption.  Dr. Al-Kadi concluded that the Arabic word
sifr, for the digit zero, developed into the European
technical term for encryption.


REFERENCES:

1.   Badeau, J. S. et. al.,  The Genius of Arab Civilization:
     Source of Renaissance.  Second Edition.  Cambridge: MIT
     Press. 1983.

2.   al-Kadi, Ibrahim A., Cryptography and Data Security:
     Cryptographic Properties of Arabic, Proceedings of the
     Third Saudi Engineering Conference. Riyadh, Saudi
     Arabia: Nov 24-27, Vol 2:910-921., 1991.

3.   al-Kadi, Ibrahim A., Origins of Cryptology: The Arab
     Contributions, Cryptologia, Vol XVI, No.  2, April 1992,
     pp 97-127.

4.   Mrayati, Mohammad, Yahya Meer Alam and Hassan al-
     Tayyan., Ilm at-Ta'miyah wa Istikhraj al-Mu,amma Ind
     al-Arab. Vol 1. Damascus: The Arab Academy of Damascus.,
     1987.

5.   Youshkevitch, A. P., Geschichte der Mathematik im
     Mittelatter, Liepzig, Germany: Teubner, 1964.


Regards,

LANAKI, President ACA, 6-22-95.


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