This
page contains links to PDF files which are drafts of a reference
grammar of Seri, an indigenous language of northwestern Mexico. These
drafts are provided here while the grammar is revised for publication.
Page numbers may vary considerably from draft to draft.
Comments,
suggestions, corrections, requests for additional information, and
criticisms are solicited during 2008 so that the grammar can be
improved and made more informative and useful. Contact information: steve_marlett@sil.org.
Please use the words "Feedback on grammar" in the subject line.
Author: Stephen A.
Marlett
Research
for this grammar has been facilitated by a fellowship from the National
Endowment for the Humanities' program for Documenting Endangered
Languages, (FN-50007-06),
gratefully acknowledged.
The
Seri people and their language (history, affiliation, sociolinguistic
situation, written form; history of the study of the language); guide
to this grammar; typological characteristics of the language; sources
of data.
A
basic clause consists of a series of nominal phrases followed by a verb
phrase or predicate complement. Basic order is SOV. The chapter
discusses indirect/oblique arguments as well (which are
cross-referenced on the verb as well as subjects and direct objects. A
relatively flat structure is proposed for the clause.
This chapter provides a
general overview of the order of
elements in
the sentence, focusing primarily on multiclausal sentences —
chained clause structures — and excluding those with
complement
clauses (see chapter 12). In §3.1 the order of clauses is
presented, looking especially at finite clauses, although nominalized
dependent clauses are mentioned briefly in §3.5. The basic
order
is dependent clause followed by independent clause, as expected for a
head-final language. A brief introduction to Different Subject marking
is given in §3.6 since it comes up so often in this context.
In
§3.7 examples are shown of postposed dependent clauses. The
semantic relationships between dependent clauses and main clauses are
briefly reviewed in §3.8. Some common devices for linking
sentences together in a discourse are presented in §3.9.
Situations where a nominal occurs in a special sentence-initial
position or a sentence-final position are taken up in §3.10
and
§3.12 respectively. A nominal phrase is sometimes presented at
least one clause earlier than the verb of which it is an argument; this
is discussed in §3.11. Sentence adverbs are discussed in
chapter
24.
This
chapter explores the situations in which a nominal may be completely
non-overt. Null arguments are discussed in §4.1 and null
possessors in §4.2. Nominals in which the head is expressed by
one
of the modifiers of the nominal phrase — the so-called fused
heads – are discussed in §4.3. Coreference between
null
arguments and overt nominals, and between null arguments and other null
arguments is discussed in the final two sections.
The
verb phrase discussed here is the phrase (dominated by a verb) that
follows the nominal phrases in the clause, whether those nominal
phrases are adjuncts or arguments. Part of the goal of this chapter is
to present details about this constituent. Evidence that the direct
object phrase combines with the verb to form a phrase has not been
found.
Questions
typically require either a verb inflected in interrogative mood, or the
question modal –ya after the nominal predicate). In this
chapter,
yes-no questions are presented first (§6.1), followed by
content
questions (§6.2) and rhetorical questions (§6.3). The
section
on content questions is divided into two main parts (realis and
irrealis) which then take up the question words in specific subsections.
This
chapter examines the structure of what has traditionally been called
the noun phrase. A distinction is made, however, between a simple noun
phrase (NP) — typically a noun and various kinds of modifiers
— and a determiner phrase (DP). This chapter includes a
detailed
presentation of relative clauses (all internally-headed when the head
is overt).
The
order of nominal phrases in the clause depends in part on their
relationship to the clause. This chapter focuses on those relationships
which are more basic than the ways in which they are represented
linearly and morphologically. This chapter therefore also sets the
stage for the morphological properties of verbs which are explained in
chapter 17.
Two
types of predicative constructions exist: those which have no finite
verb and those which contain a copular verb. The verbless construction
(§10.1) typically indicates membership in a class. The copular
construction (§10.3) has broader uses, both specifying and
ascriptive. This chapter includes a section on the comparative
construction.
Coreference
between the subject (agent/experiencer) and direct object
(patient/theme) of a clause is the hallmark of the canonical reflexive
construction (§11.2.1). The reflexive construction is
syntactically and morphologically transitive in the typical situation.
In all cases it depends on coreference with an agent/experiencer which
is also the surface subject except in the passive clause. The target of
the reflexive may also be an indirect object. Coreference between the
subject and a possessor merits specific discussion (§11.3). No
reflexive pronoun is used in this situation, but coreference may be
unambiguous. Complements of postpositions show a similar pattern
(§11.4). A few verbs are semantically reflexive
(§18.4.4);
the action is one that a person commonly does to herself/himself. No
reflexive pronoun occurs with these intransitive verbs. Situations in
which two entities are performing a reciprocal action utilize a
transitive construction and a word (pti)
that is distinct from the
reflexive pronoun (§11.5). This same word is used when the
action
is performed on two or more items, one to another, by a distinct agent.
Complement
clauses occur in different forms. The clause may be headed by an
infinitive, a deverbal noun, or a finite verb. Complement clauses with
infinitives (§12.1) and deverbal nouns as heads
(§12.2 and
§9.1.2) function clearly as subjects and direct objects of
other
verbs; they are standard fare. Complement clauses with finite verbs
(§12.3) usually have quite different structures, however, and
typically are not true subjects or direct objects. The remaining
sections of this chapter present specific verbs, by group, and
demonstrate the kinds of complements that occur with them.
This
chapter looks at classes of nouns based on morphology (possession and
pluralization, §13.1), the count/mass noun distinction
(§13.1.3), as well as noun classes that are developing around
the
choice of determiner (§13.3). The details of the morphology of
possessive marking and pluralization are presented (§13.2).
Locational nouns --- nouns used to indicate spatial
relationships --- are presented in §13.4.
The
only productive morphology for deriving nouns from another class of
words is that which derives nouns from verbs. Such derivation is
extremely important in the language. The deverbal nouns have traits of
both nouns and verbs. The subcategorization frames which characterize
the verbs also characterize the corresponding deverbal nouns. In
addition, the deverbal nouns inflect for direct object, indirect
object, negation, and passive in the same way as verbs. Deverbal nouns
differ from finite verbs in that subject inflection is either absent
(in the subject-oriented deverbal nouns) or is expressed
morphologically through the possessor set (in the object and
action/oblique-oriented deverbal nouns). They inflect for normal direct
object and indirect object morphology. The deverbal nouns do not show
tense, but they distinguish between realis and irrealis by their
morphology. The realis forms are the most complicated morphologically;
they are presented in §§14.1-4. The irrealis forms
are simple
but usually co-occur with an auxiliary of some sort, as is explained in
§14.5.
A (proper) name is an
expression which conventionally refers
to a
particular entity. This chapter examines the form and the syntax of
names for places, individuals, legendary and historical figures,
spirits, months, constellations, stars, etc. in recent and modern Seri
culture. It is in this context that ethnonyms are discussed,
although these are actually common nouns in
Seri. In §15.1 it is shown how common nouns are distinguished
from
names. In §15.2 the structure of names is presented. Ethnonyms
are
presented in
§15.3 even though they are not strictly
“names”. The
names of individuals are discussed in §15.4, and the
embellishments that occur with them in §15.5. Their use as
appositive modifiers is presented in §15.6. The use of names
as
vocatives is presented in §15.7. Expressions that replace
names in
contexts where indirect reference is appropriate are discussed in
§15.8 .
Five
types of overt pronouns are presented in this chapter: personal
(§16.1), demonstrative (§16.2), quantitative
(§16.3),
interrogative (§16.4), and locative (§16.5). The
reflexive
pronouns, which are a subtype of personal pronoun, are discussed in
§11.2. Personal pronouns are distinguished from the pronominal
reference in the verb morphology (see §17.1.2). The
pro-infinitival complement seehe
is discussed in
§12.1.2.1.
This
chapter covers the inflectional morphology that is found on finite and
non-finite verbs. It therefore presents tense/mood, subject person
inflection, direct object person inflection, indirect/oblique object
person inflection, subject number inflection, negation, passive,
unspecified object, directionals, aspect, infinitives, and imperatives.
In
this chapter a large sampling of different kinds of non-derived verbs
is laid out according to the various subcategorization frames with
which they operate. Semantic subcategorization and syntactic
subcategorization are distinguished; this is especially helpful in the
discussion of direct and indirect objects.
Syntactic
subcategorization generally is restricted to three items: subjects,
direct objects and indirect objects (although there are some special
cases, as is shown). These three notions correspond to relatively clear
morphological and syntactic criteria. The most directly indicative
criteria are the morphological markings described as subject person
inflection, direct object inflection, and indirect object inflection
(see §17.1.2). Subject and direct objects have additional
tests
that are associated with them (see §9.1 and §9.2,
respectively). Semantic subcategorization is presented here using some
fairly standard names for semantic roles, but no claims are made for
the adequacy of these labels cross-linguistically. It is also possible
that some macro-roles could properly unify some of the more specific
semantic roles used here.
Verb
stems that are related to morphologically simpler stems are considered
in this chapter. §19.1 discusses intransitive verbs that are
built
on transitive roots; the derived verbs omit the direct object.
§19.2 mentions a few verbs that are formed on nominal bases.
§19.3 discusses verbs built on nominal bases where the derived
verb indicates having or putting on item referred to by the noun.
Subsection §19.3.4 looks at the rare kinship verbs.
§19.4
presents verbs which include an experiencer-subject in their argument
structure. §19.5 examines causative verbs, §19.6
assistive
verbs, and §19.7 the less common so-called benefactive verbs.
Some
miscellaneous derived verbs are presented in §19.8. The
allomorphy
of the prefixes for causatives and assistives is presented in
§19.10, and the morphology for the times/raising verbs in
§19.11. Finally, some unusual examples of dative and
antidative
morphology are presented in §19.12.
A
number of small words — some stressed and some not stressed
— occur in various constructions with very important uses
that
are nonetheless not always easily described or classified. In this
grammar some of them are referred to as auxiliaries and some are
referred to as modals. In some constructions these two categories of
words co-occur, in the order Auxiliary – Modal
(§20.4 for
some examples).
The words called auxiliaries do not form a
homogeneous class. They are for the most part short words —
some
would call them particles — that subcategorize for special
verb
forms and are used in a limited number of constructions. These
constructions are important to understand, in part because they are so
very common.
The words called modals tend to indicate declarative mood vs.
interrogative mood, but they also sometimes conflate tense. The
auxiliaries and modals always follow the words to which they relate
which, in some cases, may be thought of as their complements. There are
two types of auxiliaries: those which give a nominal output and those
which give a verbal output.
This
chapter examines the class of determiners which may head determiner
phrases (see §8.1). Such determiners include indefinite
articles
(§21.1), definite articles (§21.2), and demonstrative
adjectives (§21.3). The indefinite articles are also used as
pronouns; that is, they may occur without a complement at all (see
§4.3.1) or may head a partitive expression (§8.5).
Likewise,
the demonstrative adjectives may also be used as pronouns
(§4.3.2). A demonstrative pronoun may also occur in
construction
with a nominal phrase; this might be mistaken for a simple determiner
phrase; see §16.2.4.
A
few words are labeled postpositions in the 2005 dictionary. These seven
lexemes, five of which are in common use, represent the class of words
most similar to postpositions in other languages, but they have some
special characteristics, including the fact that when the PP is not
modifying an NP, the P must appears in the VP. The postpositions have
complements and therefore form a phrase with a DP in some semantic
sense. However, there is no clear evidence that at any superficial
syntactic level they form a syntactic constituent with their
complements. Instead, the evidence indicates that the postposition is
actually inside the VP (as the term is used in this grammar).
Notions
that correspond to prototypical adjectives in other languages are most
commonly expressed in Seri with intransitive stative predicates. These
are not distinguishable morphologically from other intransitive
predicates (see §18.2) and no significant motivation internal
to
Seri has been found to distinguish them from other verbs as a word
class. The vast majority of adjectival notions are therefore
represented in Seri consistently as relative clauses using deverbal
nouns when used attributively and as verbs or deverbal nouns (see
§10.4.1) when used predicatively.
The
class of adverbs is relatively small although interesting in many ways.
Moreover, there is no regular word formation process to create more
words of this class, although adverbs combine in some creative ways to
give a variety of expressions, some of which must be listed in the
lexicon due to their semantic idiosyncrasies. A few adverbs have
obviously developed from a fusion of a noun and postposition, as
discussed below (§24.3.2).
Three
coordinators
exist: nominal coordinator xah and, or
(§25.1) , and two clausal coordinators — adversative xo
but (§25.2) and alternative x
(~ tx)
or (§25.3). A few clausal subordinators (§25.4) exist
although, as demonstrated in chapter 3, most subordinate clauses are
presented without any subordinator.
Most
of the words discussed in this chapter are treated as interjections
since they do not combine phrasally with other words or phrases in
their normal usage. In §26.1-26.7, a few expressions are
discussed
which are words or phrases used in exclamations with meanings that are
quite different from their lexical content. §26.8 presents the
number words that are used in counting but not otherwise, and
§26.9 some lexical words that are used as interjections in
special
circumstances. In §26.10 the use of the rhetorical adverb a
with
nouns to express sarcasm is discussed.
This chapter discusses
the allomorphy of the tense/mood
prefixes found
in finite verb forms (§ 17.1.1 ). (The allomorphy directly
related
to other aspects of the verb inflection is discussed in the sections in
which the morphemes in question are presented.) The tense/mood prefixes
are discussed first in their simplest morphological context: with third
person subject and, if the verb is transitive, with third person direct
object. All that is in focus here is the allomorphy that the verb stem
has with the tense/mood prefixes.
This
chapter presents the phonemes (§28.1), basic facts about
stress
(§28.2), syllable structure (§28.3), discussion of
the
minimal word (§28.4), and the phonetic details that are not
usually represented in the practical orthography (§28.5).